Original topic in Advanced MAcroeconomics Essay

Original topic in Advanced MAcroeconomics - Essay Example The balance of payments is usually in deficit. (Adams, 2002, pp. 53-55) A country’s fiscal policy is the mix of government expenditure and revenue collection mechanism in an economy. Historically, governments collect revenues from taxes and their expenditures include public sector expenditures. (Auerbach, 1997, p. 88) A country’s monetary policy is a combination of activities by the state bank or central bank, the government and other financial institutions to control the demand and supply of money and interest rates in an economy. In a nutshell, the effect of each is dependent on the other and that is what the monetary policy aims to control. (Walsh, 2003, pp. 9-12) This case focuses on primarily on monetary policy. To gain a better understanding of how a monetary policy works, we first need to understand its two components i.e. money supply and interest rates. Money supply is generally divided into M1 and M2. Further classifications may also exist. The divisions are based on liquidity of the funds. M1 funds are the most liquid funds and include cash, very short term securities or securities equivalent to cash. M2 funds include those funds which are slightly less liquid than cash like current account deposits. As the liquidity decreases, the number after M increases. In my opinion interest rate is basically the cost of money. It is also the cost of borrowing or the return on investment. Interest rates have two components. The discount rate which is set by the central bank and is the rate at which the central bank lends to commercial banks. The other component is the market interest rate. I believe it differs because of bank’s spreads and their portfolio of customers. In my opinion, the developed nations have always moved towards a relaxed monetary policy as they promote free trade and trade liberalization. In addition the existing well defined systems in these economies allowed for and

Tax Compliance And Smes Economics Essay

Tax Compliance And Smes Economics Essay According to Marti (2010) tax compliance is a complex term to define. Simply put, tax compliance refers to fulfilling all tax obligations as specified by the law freely and completely. It has been found that regulatory burdens fall disproportionately on small and medium enterprises internationally (Pope Abdul-Jabbar, 2008). Their size and nature makes the issue of tax compliance one of particular importance especially since most SMEs have access to limited resources and inadequate expertise to comply with diverse and complicated regulation. He also believes that high compliance costs can result in tax avoidance, tax fraud, and inhibit investment by way of diminishing competitiveness of the country in terms of taxation attractiveness. Tax non-compliance may be in one of many forms; it could either be failure to submit a tax return within the stipulated period or non submission, understatement of income, overstatement of deductions, failure to pay assessed taxes by due date. (Kasipillai Abdul Jabbar, 2006) and in some cases non-compliance may mean an outright failure to pay levied taxes. Studies have shown that the problem of tax evasion is a widespread one (Kasipillai Abdul Jabbar, 2006). Furthermore, Fagbemi, Uadile Noah (2010) found that it is prevalent in developing countries and it hinders development thereby leading to economic stagnation and other socio-economic problems. Chipeta (2002) identified tax rates as one of the causes of tax evasion. He pointed out that a higher tax rate increases taxpayers burden and reduces their disposable income therefore, the probability of evading tax is higher. 2.5 Tax Policy and Level of Voluntary Compliance among SMEs Small taxpayers under the regular system of taxation are discriminated against, since the compliance requirements, cost of compliance and tax rate are the same for both small and large enterprises. Reducing the compliance costs and tax rate increases the small enterprises profit margin. It also increases the Governments tax revenue, since the simplified provisions for small and medium enterprises reduce the size of the informal economy and the number of non-complying registered taxpayers (Vasak, 2008). Furthermore, SMEs usually have to operate in an overbearing regulatory environment with the plethora of regulatory agencies, multiple taxes, cumbersome importation procedure and high port charges that constantly exert serious burden on their operations. An overly complex regulatory system and tax regime or one opaque in its administration and enforcement makes tax compliance unduly burdensome and often have a distortionary effect on the development of SMEs as they are tempted to morph into forms that offer a lower tax burden or no tax burden at all (Masato, 2009), and this results in a tax system that imposes high expenses on the society. A poorly executed tax system also leads to low efficiency, high collection charges, waste of time for taxpayers and the staff, and the low amounts of received taxes and the deviation of optimum allocation of resources (Farzbod, 2000). Existing empirical evidence clearly indicates that small and medium sized businesses are affected disproportionately by these costs: when scaled by sales or assets, the compliance costs of SMEs are higher than for large businesses www.ccsenet.org/ijbm International Journal of Business and Management Vol. 7, No. 12; June 2012 Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education 91 (Weichenrieder, 2007). 2.6 Tax Policy that will Encourage Voluntary Compliance by SMEs SMEs constitute untapped revenue potential and an uneven playing field in many countries (International Tax Dialogue, 2007) as such they need to be captured by the tax net. However, though legislations are necessary regulator for protection of the business environment and security of the economic agents, for establishment of the necessary social security regulations, they may also hamper compliance and the growth of business through additional expenditures and administrative obstacles. Thus Shahroodi, (2010) stated that for a tax system to be efficient, the tax policy needs to be designed such that the tax rates are appropriate and rational, the exemptions are lower in amount, the tax collection organization are more efficient, the tax burden of the indigent people should be lighter and the fight against corruption and tax evasion should be much more intense. Tax policies can be designed in such a way that they do not only directly affect SMEs but also indirectly push for voluntary compliance and their growth. Yaobin (2007), emphasized declared that special tax regimes for SMEs may be appropriate policy instruments for minimizing the cost of collection. Because awareness of the dangers of inadequate taxation of SMEs has grown because of the potential of uneven tax enforcement to cause distortions of competition, voluntary compliance by larger enterprises and by wage earners, (International Tax Dialogue, 2007), government intervention should help maintain balance while ensuring that countries exploit the social benefits from greater competition and entrepreneurship. Pro-business (and Pro-SME) Tax regimes and enforcement should be simple, consistent and predictable should to lower compliance and administrative costs, and hence reduce uncertainty faced by taxpayers as well as improve the levels of voluntary compliance (Kasipillai, 2005). 2.7 Theories of Tax Compliance Various opinions exist about the best ways to improve tax compliance. Given the chance, a lot of businesses will not pay taxes unless there is a motivation to do so. Some believe that the best way is to increase incentives (Feld Frey, 2007) others believe the best way is to increase penalties. Tax compliance theories can be broadly classified into two. They are; economics based theories and psychology based theories. 2.7.1 Economic Based Theories They are also known as deterrence theory and they place emphasis on incentives. The theory suggests that taxpayers are amoral utility maximizers- they are influenced by economic motives such as profit maximization and probability of detection. As such they analyze alternative compliance paths for instance whether or not to evade tax, the likelihood of being detected and the resulting repercussions and then select the alternative that maximises their expected after tax returns after adjusting for risk. This process is referred to as playing the audit lottery by Trivedi and Shehata (2005). Therefore according to the theory, in order to improve compliance, audits and penalties for non-compliance should be increased. 2.7.2 Psychology Theories Psychology theories on the other hand posit that taxpayers are influenced to comply with their tax obligations by psychological factors. They focus on the taxpayers morals and ethics. The theories suggest that a taxpayer may comply even when the probability of detection is low. As opposed to the economic theories that emphasize increased audits and penalties as solutions

Vegetarianism - To Meat Or Not To Meat Essay -- Healthy Lifestyle Essay

As children, one of the first things we learn is to recognize the friendly barnyard animals. We easily can spot the furry cow with the gentle eyes, the feathery chickens who run wildly about, and the pink pigs that roll in the mud. We may also sing about that nice farmer, Old McDonald, and all of his nice animals. The truth is that Old McDonald with a straw hat has been replaced by a business man in the hard hat. Ninety-five percent of the meat we eat does not come from Old McDonald's farm. Hens, chickens, turkeys, and over half of beef cattle, dairy cows, and pigs come from an "animal factory" (Sussman, 95) which is a mechanized environment. This new farming method finds blue skies, tall silos, and grassy hillsides good for calendars but, bad for business. Those pictures are not cost effective. Animals are not treated with the loving care of a farmer but, are treated like inmates on death row. Poultry, pigs, and calves are forced to live in total confinement never to see the light of day until they head to the slaughter house. Hens are frequently crowded into small cages which they may not leave for a year or two. Pregnant sows are often put in stalls that are their homes for three months at a time. After having her piglets, a sow may be pinned to the floor for four to seven weeks in order to keep the sow from rolling over on her babies. Cows may be fed steady diet of molasses laced saw dust, shredded newspaper, plastic pellets, poultry manure, and processed slaughter house wastes in order to gain weight faster. Confinement is so complete that the animals do not have room to move (206). Not only are the animals forced to live in this unnatural environment, they are also pumped full off antibiotics, hormones, steroids, and are dipped in pesticides. Over half the cattle and nearly all pigs, calves, and poultry are fed a steady diet of antibiotics and related Jarboe 2 medications to help control diseases. No o... ...though our bodies are designed to rely on vegetarian foods, modern man has changed his dietary habits to those of the carnivore, or meat eater. We may think of ourselves as carnivores but, our flat teeth are not designed to tear through hide, flesh, and bones. Tenderizer is put on meat so that it will be more easily chewed. Furthermore, the digestive system of the carnivore is designed to get rid of the meat it eats before it decays. The human digestive system is designed to break down complex carbohydrates and fibers like those of the herbivore (Sussman, 300). Taking a look past the cruel treatment of animals and the nutritional value of the vegetarian diet, maybe God did not intend for us to eat meat at all. In Genesis 1:29-30 God said: I give you every seed-bearing plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it. They will be your for food. And to all the beasts of the earth and all the birds of the air and all the creatures that move on the ground - everything that has the breath of life in it - I give every plant for food. And it was so.

Evaluate the dramatic impact of the supernatural Essay

Shakespeare’s Hamlet, tells the story of the prince of Denmark, a headstrong and passionate young man, who is seeking revenge for the murder of his father. He achieves this but tragically loses his own life in the process. The audience of Shakespeare’s time would have been newly deemed Protestant, as Hamlet makes reference to a belief in Purgatory, is never clear whether or not Shakespeare follows a particular religious line, however the audience would certainly have been familiar with the concept. The protestant beliefs differed little from those of the Roman Catholics. The only drastic changes being the Protestants acceptance of divorce, and exclusion of the belief in Purgatory; I am thy fathers spirit, Doomed for a certain term to walk the night, And for the day confined to fast in fires Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature Are burnt and purged away (1. 5. 9-13) Whilst the existence of the ghost is a common belief in Elizabethan England, and evidence for the existence of an afterlife, he speaks of his confinement in what can be assumed to purgatory or hell. Purgatory is represented as being the state between heaven and hell in which tainted souls are purged of their crimes and sent, in a state of purity to heaven. This belief is a uniquely Catholic one. However recently, the Pope has stated that Purgatory is a state of mind rather than a physical place, and whilst a person is in that state of mind, repenting of their sins, they will be allowed to enter heaven upon death. This reflects upon a change in the nature of the Catholic Church as well as a laxity in the structure of religious education. Religion in Shakespeare’s England was a much more prominent part of life than it is in comparison with today. The multicultural nation we live in now was then dominated by the chosen religion of the monarch. At this point the religion was Protestantism. As Elizabeth the first was on the throne. Whilst being a protestant, Elizabeth was recorded as being tolerant of Catholic beliefs. This adjustment to a protestant life would still have left some remnants of Catholicism in its path. Redemption and the state of the immortal soul after death was one of the main beliefs of the Catholic Church and the Protestant faith, however to less of an extent and this is reflected as it is one of the main themes in Hamlet. This manifests itself in several ways. For example, it is Hamlet’s belief in the afterlife and desire to act as ultimate judge is what stays his hand as Claudius unwittingly tries to pray in the church; A villain kills my father, and for that I his sole do this same villain send To heaven! Claudius, as he appeared to be praying, would have died in a state of grace with god and gone to purgatory or heaven rather than hell, which is where Hamlet would much prefer Claudius spent eternity. This is in line with the religious beliefs of the time. Therefore to the audience of the time, hell would have been a much more real and present threat than today. As attendance at church was mandatory and punishable by time in the stocks, the majority of the audience would be familiar with the concept. The heat of hell is another concept the audience would have been familiar with is the heat of hell. Shakespeare makes reference to this in act one scene five, and it is also a point of reference in the bible; And shall cast them into a furnace of fire; there shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth (Matthew 13:42) At this point in history, the bible was first being translated from Latin into English. So religion reached the British public on mass on new levels. In Hamlet, the fires and sulphur of hell are3 referred to initially by the ghost; When I to sulph’rous and tormenting flames Must render up myself (1. 5. 2-3) Whether the ghost of Old Hamlet is residing in hell or Purgatory is an issue which Shakespeare leaves open and unresolved. This leaves the Shakespearean audience with the question of whether there was a hope of redemption for Old Hamlet, and in relation themselves. The ghost uses a great deal of apocalyptic imagery, heightening the dramatic impact of his words on the modern and contextual audience; Oh horrible, oh horrible, most horrible! If thou hast nature in thee bare it not Let not the royal bed of Denmark be A couch for luxury and damned incest (1. 5. 80-84). The relationship between Claudius and Gertrude would have been seen as incest n Shakespeare’s time, whilst it would be more acceptable today. This declaration is seen coming from the mouth of the ghost. To a contextual audience, this would greatly increase the sense of urgency, and condemn incest as being against god. This shows the audience of Shakespeare’s time was far more greatly affected by the supernatural, religion and the afterlife than today. As today, our understanding of religious teaching is far less comprehensive than this, and applies to a far smaller proportion of society. Shakespeare’s accuracy regarding religious beliefs of the time would have had a far larger impact on the audiences of the time, as these beliefs directly related to their lives. These beliefs were taken a great deal more seriously by the majority of the country. Evidence for this is that the clergy, in the social hierarchy was second to the nobility; the church was often consulted in parliamentary matters. In contrast to today, where the church, still an influential force, is influential over far fewer people. To a modern audience, Hamlet offers an insight into the mindset of the 1600’s audience. This interest in the afterlife, and the duality between life and death occurs in more than one of his plays. Macbeth for example is fully aware of the apocalyptic consequences of murdering the king, placed there by god. Today, the divine right of kings is less of an issue as we live in a country run by an elected parliament based on a voting system involving universal suffrage. A similarity between the Shakespearean audience’s perception and a modern audiences perception of Hamlet is the human fascination with death and the afterlife. Shakespeare clearly shows the Roman Catholic perception of death, one of the few acceptable at the time. This would have relevance to a much smaller percentage of the modern audience. Rather than appeal to the darker side of a Roman Catholic belief, Hamlet tempts the inquisitive and growing, almost pagan darkness in society. The ghost of Old Hamlet is the most vivid appearance of the supernatural directly influencing the play. It is a crucial issue whether or not the ghost is the past king of Denmark.

Positive Behavior Essay

Reinforcement is a consequence following a behavior that could increase the probability of the behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007). Reinforcement helps the behavior to be strong enough that it can occur naturally within its one’s environment or can be a part of an intervention plan that teaches new behaviors (Sulzer-Azaroff & Mayor, 1991). Reinforcement is an important concept in operant conditioning and an important part of learning process. B. F. Skinner accepted this technique to modify reinforcement and punishment as well as extinction reinforcement. It increases a negative behavior, or a positive behavior. In Operant Learning, there are two types of behaviors positive and negative. Reinforcement is something that is part of everyone’s life and rewards are given to enforce positive behaviors. Positive reinforcement is something that is done to increase a response from someone. Educators are often involved in positive reinforcement. It helps the students give the desired behavior that is desired by the teacher. Teachers can impact student’s life positively by dealing with their behavior and by using a reward system. Being an Educator, there must be stability to effectively manage a classroom of students. Sometimes being faced with challenges in managing a student’s behavior becomes overwhelming especially students with behavior problems. Students are often very hard to teach and to get them focused on the information that’s being given to them because of the disruptive behaviors, but having some type of intervention plan in place helps to deal with the behavior problems. Although, teachers like to think they can handle things on their own sometimes before going to an administrator for an discipline referral, but because of the problems behavior sometimes being so bad, the student has to get involved with the discipline principal. The behavior could cause suspension from school in-school or out-of-school for a period of time awaiting a hearing. However, positive reinforcement does work for some students in the classroom. In my classroom environment the students gets positive reinforcement by letting them go to the computer lab, watch an educational movie, library, free time, or play music while they work and giving small snacks. These are some of the things that we do for positive reinforcement in the classroom. If positive reinforcement worked for everyone it would be a good thing, but some students do not care to be rewarded for good behavior. However, every student should want to do the right thing and not depend on someone giving them something in order to do well. Negative reinforcement is also a theory of Operant Learning. According to B. F. Skinner’s( 1953) theory on â€Å"operant conditioning† Skinner says that to be rewarded has more effect if it does not happen. If one was rewarded constantly the effect would be greater than the rewards that are usually given. If a student doesn’t know when they are being rewarded, they will control and behave themselves more so than anyone who knows the time the rewards are given out. Negative reinforcement is when certain incentives or items are removed after a particular behavior is exhibited. Although it is very unlikely that the behavior may not ever happen again, it is decreased. The negative behavior is increased if a student is stopping, moving or avoiding a negative outcome. It should never be thought of as a punishment. Positive reinforcement is always adding something positive to increase the behavior, but negative reinforcement is taking something that is negative to increase a behavior. Negative reinforcement is also when you do something to keep from being punished for it. An example is if â€Å"I nagged my son about keeping his room clean and he cleans it to avoid me nagging him to clean it. † Reinforcement is something that happens all the time in everyone’s everyday life. Making a plan for a child that is in special education is very important. To set the goals and objectives, it has to be in written form. To write a plan for setting goals and objectives takes some thought. First of all one must know what an objective is. Since I have been working in the education field, I have had to learn many things. I learned while sitting in an IEP that the teacher must have goals and objectives for the student. The objective gives information of what you want to learn and to be able to show evidence of what you have learned. The objective is important and it must be well taught to help with the evaluating content of the goals. It leaves not enough room for reason. In writing an objective there are uniqueness that should be communicated and they are the accomplishment of an objective. This is a statement of what is anticipated of the learner. Circumstances are actually what the student can do or how the task can be performed. The standard of the objective tells how the student performed the assignment so that it will be acknowledged. Writing objectives should be about how much or how well of what someone will do and by when. For example; â€Å"Alicia will show respect for others, her peers and adults, her ideas, thoughts, opinion, personal space and property. † Alicia should do this independently 90% of the time. Since Alicia is having problems with respecting others, she has to sit away from the group until she apologizes to all of her teachers and peers. Once she does this, she can return back to the group. Alicia likes being with the group, so she finally decides to apologize to everyone. The data was collected by Informal Assessment and Data Collection. Another example would be Alicia needs to follow directions without arguing with the teacher 1 out of 4 times a day as measured by observation, weekly observation and charting the outcome. Everything we do have a consequence whether it’s positive or negative. However, to get a positive stimulus one must increase the behavior to something positive. To get a negative behavior, do something that is not acceptable. It is always wise to try and increase the student’s behavior by positive reinforcement and definitely not by punishment. Doing something that is positive to decrease the negative behavior is always the right thing to do. Reinforcements of both behaviors are something that is done on a daily basis of everyday life. Today because people operate by their environment, (Martin & Pear, 1999) we all look for reinforcement in our lives rather it’s at work, with our friends, or family. All behaviors eventually become a way of growth. As for reinforcement, it will be more successful if the intensity and the magnitude of enforcers is greater ( Mittenberger, 2008). So, the bottom line is that Positive Reinforcement should be used in the classroom to help those students that are experiencing behavior problems. Special Education Teachers should take into consideration of positive reinforcement to better help their students to be successful.